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Russian grammar (; also ; ) encompasses: * a highly inflexional morphology * a syntax that, for the literary language, is the conscious fusion of three elements: * * a Church Slavonic inheritance; * * a Western European style; * * a polished vernacular foundation. The Russian language has preserved an Indo-European inflexional structure, although considerable adaption has taken place. The spoken language has been influenced by the literary one, but it continues to preserve some characteristic forms. Russian dialects show various non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms discarded by the literary language. NOTE: In the discussion below, various terms are used in the meaning they have in standard Russian discussions of historical grammar. In particular, aorist, imperfect, etc. are considered verbal tenses rather than aspects, because ancient examples of them are attested for both perfective and imperfective verbs. ==Nouns== Nominal declension is subject to six cases – nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, and prepositional – in two numbers (singular and plural), and absolutely obeying grammatical gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter). Up to ten additional cases are identified in linguistics textbooks,〔 Zaliznyak A. A. "Русское именное словоизменение." Moscow.: Science, 1967〕〔 Uspenskij V. A. "К определению падежа по А. Н. Колмогорову // Бюллетень объединения по проблемам машинного перевода." Issue. 5. Moscow., 1957 (online copy )〕〔 Klobukov E. V. "Семантика падежных форм в современном русском литературном языке. (Введение в методику позиционного анализа)" Moscow: Moscow State University Press, 1986.〕 although all of them are either incomplete (do not apply to all nouns) or degenerate (appear identical to one of the six simple cases). The most recognized additional cases are locative (в лесу, в крови, в слезах), partitive (чаю, сахару, коньяку), and several forms of vocative (Господи, Боже, отче). The adjectives, pronouns, and the first two cardinal numbers further vary by gender. Old Russian also had a third number, the dual, but it has been lost except for its use in the nominative and accusative cases with the numbers two, three and four (''e.g.'' два стула , "two chairs", now reanalyzed as genitive singular). Russian noun cases often replace the usage of prepositions in Indo-European languages.〔(【引用サイトリンク】url=http://masterrussian.com/aa071600a.shtml )〕 Their usage can be summarised as: * Nominative – the "subject" case * Accusative – the "object" case * Genitive – corresponding to the possessive case or "of + (noun)" * Dative – corresponding to "to + (noun)" * Instrumental – denoting an instrument used in an action * Prepositional – used with many common prepositions, such as "in", "on" etc. There are no definite or indefinite articles (such as ''the'', ''a'', ''an'' in English) in the Russian language. The sense of a noun is determined from the context in which it appears. That said, there are some means of expressing whether a noun is definite or indefinite. They are: * The use of a direct object in the genitive instead of the accusative in negation signifies that the noun is indefinite, compare: "Я не ви́жу кни́ги" ("I don't see a book" or "I don't see any books") and "Я не ви́жу кни́гу" ("I don't see the book"). * The use of the numeral one sometimes signifies that the noun is indefinite, e.g.: "Почему́ ты так до́лго?" - "Да так, встре́тил одного́ дру́га, пришло́сь поговори́ть" ("Why did it take you so long?" - "Well, I met one () friend and had to talk"). * Word order may also be used for this purpose, compare "В ко́мнату вбежа́л ма́льчик" ("Into the room rushed a boy") and "Ма́льчик вбежа́л в ко́мнату" ("The boy rushed into the room"). * The plural form may signify indefiniteness: "Вы мо́жете купи́ть э́то в магази́нах" ("You can buy this in shops") vs. "Вы мо́жете купи́ть э́то в магази́не" ("You can buy this in the shop"). The category of animacy is relevant in Russian nominal and adjectival declension.〔http://www.rusdec.com〕 Specifically, the accusative has two possible forms in many paradigms, depending on the animacy of the referent. For animate referents (people and animals), the accusative form is generally identical to the genitive form. For inanimate referents, the accusative form is identical to the nominative form. This principle is relevant for masculine singular nouns of the second declension (see below) and adjectives, and for all plural paradigms (with no gender distinction). In the tables below, this behavior is indicated by the abbreviation ''N or G'' in the row corresponding to the accusative case. In Russian there are three declensions: * The ''first declension'' is used for feminine nouns ending with -а/-я and some masculine nouns having the same form as those of feminine gender, such as ''па́па'' papa or ''дя́дя'' uncle; also there are common-gender nouns like ''задира'' tease which are masculine or feminine depending on the person they refer. * The ''second declension'' is used for most masculine and neuter nouns. * The ''third declension'' is used for feminine nouns ending in ь. There are also a group of several irregular "different-declension nouns" ((ロシア語:разносклоняемые существительные)), consisting of a few neuter nouns ending in -мя (e.g. время "time") and one masculine noun путь "way". However, these nouns and their forms have sufficient similarity with feminine third declension nouns that some scholars such as Litnevskaya〔Е. И. Литневская. (Русский язык. Краткий теоретический курс для школьников ) БСМП "ЭЛЕКС-Альфа", 2000〕 consider them to be non-feminine forms of this declension, as written in the tables below. Nouns ending with -ий, -ия, -ие (not to be confused with substantivated adjectives) are written with -ии instead of -ие in Prepositional (as this ending is never stressed, there is no difference in pronunciation): тече́ние - в ни́жнем тече́нии реки́ "streaming - in lower streaming of a river". But if words в течение and в продолжение are representing compound preposition meaning "while, during the time of", they are written with -е: в тече́ние ча́са "in a time of an hour". For nouns ending in -ья, -ье, or -ьё, using -ьи in the Prepositional (where endings of some of them are stressed) is usually erroneous, but in poetic speech it may be acceptable (as we replace -ии with -ьи for metric or rhyming purposes): ''Весь день она́ лежа́ла в забытьи́'' (F. Tyutchev). 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Russian grammar」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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